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For example, repurposing EV batteries has the potential to exceed 200 gigawatt hours by 2030 which represents a global value upward of $30 billion. However, utilizing SLBs has inevitably attracted attention because of its huge energy potential. Complexities associated with non-standardized battery system design, new battery system cost reductions making SLB system pricing uncompetitive, lack of SLB quality and performance guarantees, and lack of policy, protocols or certification around the SLBs globally are the key barriers to SLBs. However, there are some challenges that need to be considered and addressed for current EoL batteries. There are strong arguments for SLBs, where the residual energy can be recovered and directly deployed into other battery applications with lower energy requirement reducing production costs associated with using a new battery, and negative factors associated with battery collection, storage, handling, and recycling. The use of batteries after they have reached the end of their first intended life is termed “second-life.” The discussions of second-life battery (SLB) mostly still stand in the conceptual realm although some notable projects have already been carried out to validate them in real life. Noting that the EV battery capacity is projected to exceed 275 GWh annually by 2030, if there is a viable commercial option to deploy these batteries, then issues such as stockpiling or landfill disposal (leading to environmental or health issues) may be minimized. There is potential to utilize this remaining capacity for alternative applications beforebefore batteries ending up in waste streams. For example, a spent EV lithium-ion battery typically contains 70–80% of the initial energy.
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Although some EoL batteries cannot continue to sufficiently power a designated application or a device, they still contain a significant amount of stored energy. These batteries are regarded as EoL for their first use, though as discussed later a second life application may be relevant for some batteries before requiring disposal. High rates of electric vehicle (EV) adoption during the past decade further means a large amount of the traction batteries from the first batches of EVs and hybrid EVs will soon reach EoL, joining the other types of batteries in e-waste streams.